
Method and Matter, 



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S. LAURA ENSIGN, A. M., 



TEACHER OF GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY, IN 



The State S 



School, 



Cedar Falls, Iowa. 



■ 




GEOGRAPHY: 



METHOD AND MATTER, 



S. LAURA ENSIGN, A. M., 



TEACHER OF GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY, 



ft* 



The State Normal School 



Cedar Falls, Iowa. 



m&m$, 



SJSCOlSrjD E3DITI02ST. 



« MAY 24 1888 L. 



CEDAR FALLS, IOWA: 
GAZETTE STEAM POWER BOOK AND JOB PRINTING ESTABLISHMENT. 

iSSS. 



Copyrighted 18S8, 
By S. LAURA ENSIGN, A: M. 






PREFACE. 



d 



TRUST the suggestions and outlines given will be help- 
ful to teachers of geography in our country schools. 



INDEX OF SUBJECTS. 

PAGE 
i. Introduction, 5. 

2. Primary Geography, 10. 

3. Mathematical Geography, 14. 

4. The Calendar, '28. 

5. Stardard time, 29. 

6. Map showing standard time belts, 30. 

7. Outlines in Physical Geography 31. 

8. Outline of Political Geography, 33. 

9. Outline for the study of the state in which the pupil lives, 33. 

10. Outline for the study of the county, 33. 

11. Sample Outlines for the study of different states, . . . 34. 

12. Outline for the study of a continent, 34. 

13. Sample Outlines for the study of different countries, . 35. 

14. Outline for the study of an ocean, 35. 

15. Suggestions in teaching Geography, ... ..... 35. 

16. A Mountain Map of North America, 36. 

17. A Relief and Drainage Map of North America, . . . 37. 

18. A Coast-line Map of North America, ......... 38. 

19. Lists of forms for the study of the different continents, 39. 

20. Models for locating forms of land and water, .... 40. 

21. The Land Surveys of the United States, 41. 

22. The Governments and Religions of Europe, 42. 




IgtaeducMeg. 



THE TEACHING OP GEOGRAPHY. 

In geography we study the earth; we do not simply mem- 
orize words. We study the earth in its relations to life, andespec- 
ially as the dwelling-place of man. This fact should never be 
lost sight of by the teacher. The study of the earth commences 
with the awakening senses of the child. It is the work of the 
teacher to direct this study in the natural way. Dryden speaks 
of reading nature through the "spectacles of books." The 
child does not at first need these hindrances to a clear vision. 
The little part of the world immediately surrounding him is 
sufficient for his unfolding observation and thought. The 
cup, chalk, slates, pencils, and the various other objects in 
the school room and on the pla3^ground may serve as nuclei for 
stores of valuable information. The plants and pebbles by the 
way-side, the birds in the air, and the clouds overhead, will 
furnish an innumerable number of lessons which may be com- 
menced on the first day of school-life, and continued until the 
child is of sufficient age to extend his knowledge beyond the 
home limit, through the medium of books. The whole domain 
of science is comprehended in geography, and the primary 
work which may be done in all of its many lines, is unlimited 
and invaluable. The herbarium and museum may be profitably 
commenced in the country school, the children collecting and 
preparing the material. Nature is an unknown world to the 
child; he may become both a discoverer and an explorer in. her 
boundless realm. 

THE PREPARATION OP THE TEACHER. 

There is no royal method to successful teaching of geog- 
raphy. The day of hearing recitations is past. The text- 
book, aside from the maps, contains but a small part of the 
information which a teacher should know. Apt and vivid 
illustrations and descriptions should be at his command. The 
pupil should be trained to express the thought of the lesson 
in his own language, and encouraged to add to the matter 
given in the text-book. It is fortunate if the teacher is then 
able to supplement still farther from his own stores of informa- 
tion. By skillful questioning, the pupils can also be incited to 



geography; 



observe, to think, and to draw conclusions therefrom. In a 
recitation so conducted dull boys and girls will be rare. Geog- 
raphy is the study to awaken in a stupid child a love for 
learning. 

The preparation of the teacher, then, is most important, but 
time and labor are requisite. One's individual opportunities 
will largely indicate the means to be used, but I venture to offer 
a fewigeneral suggestions. A teacher beginning the work should 
secure several text-books; each will give some matter which 
the others do not. Books of travel are excellent. A wide 
range of reading is indispensable. Elementary works in bot- 
any, zoology, geology, and astronomy can easily be studied by 
one who has not had the advantage of instruction in these sub- 
jects, and the knowledge gained thereby is invaluable. • But 
the knowledge from books must be made practical by observa- 
tion, reflection, and a study of nature herself. A famous geog- 
rapher has written, ' 'The man who has once dissected a plant 
and practical^ studied the mutual relations and functions of 
its several parts, or who has himself traced the connection be- 
tween the topography of a district and the nature of its under- 
lying rocks, has acquired an experience which gives to his 
teaching a precision and vividness which could never be gained 
from books." 

Travel will add a reality and finish to the preparation of 
the teacher which can rarely be obtained in any other way. A 
collection of photographs of scenery, cities, and buildings, and 
also of specimens of the various products of different states and 
countries, will add life and zest to the study of geograph}^. 

THE USE OF TEXT-BOOKS. 

After a period of oral instruction, a text-book should be 
placed in the hands of the pupils; but it is the earth which is 
still studied through the medium of the book, this particular 
book being only one of the many sources of information. Clear 
maps, not too full, and appropriate pictures are two essential 
things in a good text-book in geography. 

In arithmetic, grammar, U. S. history, and many other 
subjects, the topics can easily be given in the book in the order 
they should be studied, but not so in geography. In most, if 
not all, of the text-books for grammar grades, the problems of 
mathematical geography are discussed in the first few pages, 
and there is some propriety in doing so.. It seems to be the 
logical order of arrangement, if not the natural method of study. 
A full discussion of these problems should be deferred until the 
pupil is of sufficient age and advancement to comprehend them. 
Nearly all of the definitions to be learned in geography are 
given in the first half dozen page^ but it Is a great mistake to 



METHOD AND MATTER. 



require the pupil to memorize ali of thern at once; but rather 
take them up one by one as the forms or terms occur in the 
study. Instead of commencing" with North America as the 
books indicate, it is better to begin with the state in which 
the pupils live, then take up the su> rounding slates and terri- 
tories, the United States, Canada, Mexico, and finally the 
continent. 

The age and advancement of the pupil largely determines 
the order in which the various topics of geography should be 
taken up. A text-book is chiefly -valuable for its maps. The 
information given is necessarily meager and expressed in con- 
cise language. The various kinds of geographical readers are 
excellent for supplementary work. 

APPARATUS AND MAPS. 

Geography can be successfully taught without expensive 
apparatus. A little time and ingenuity on the part of the teach- 
er will devise almost everything that is needed for illustration, 
and simple things are much better than many of the intricate 
mechanisms which are to be purchased. A globe is indispens- 
able to good teaching. In my opinion, a simple, inexpensive 
globe, of medium size, for the average country school, is prefer- 
able to one more complex. 

The pupils should be allowed to handle and study it. It 
will give them correct ideas which they might fail to get in 
any other way; as, of latitude, longitude, the true forms and 
proportions of the land and sea, etc. *A blackboard globe, 
upon which lines and illustrations can be drawn at will, is 
very helpful, and it may be secured with little trouble and 
expense, f A flexible ring, or brass hoop, arranged to move 
freely upon a standard, is valuable in illustrating the oblateness 
of the earth, centrifugal force, variations in the length of de- 
grees of latitude, and many other points. But I regard pump- 
kins, oranges, or apples, card board, and strings as more nearly 
indispensable than orreries and tellurians. 

Kvery school or teacher should be supplied with good maps. 
These, hanging upon the wall, to be used not only in the geog- 
raphy recitation, but in every other class when a place chances 
to be mentioned, are of great value. Constantly before the 
eyes of the pupils, they become imprinted upon the minds of 
even the most idle. 

The teacher, who is apt by nature, or who has had proper 
instruction in drawing, can prepare for himself a store of maps 
which may be, all things considered, as useful as those to be 
purchased. 

There should be enough blackboard in the school room, 

' "Get a wooden ball turned and painted. 

+A ring without the standard, winch can be procured at any tin shop is excellent 
in illustrating many points. 



geography; 



to accommodate the pupils and constant use should be made of 
it both by the teacher and pupils. 

MAP DRAWING AND MODELING. 

The child should begin by drawing a picture or plan of the 
school room, then a map of the school grounds, the sub-district, 
township, county, state, continent, etc. Map drawing is most 
valuable in mastering the physical and political features of 
a country, but it should be used as a means rather than an 
end. It stamps the shape of the continent upon the mind and 
aids in the location of places. 

In the primary and intermediate grades the children may 
be allowed to use thin paper, placing it over the continent, 
country, or state to be studied, and tracing the outline; or the 
teacher may draw the outline on stiff paper and cut it out, and 
then allow each child to use it as a model. When this is 
secured the pupils can locate in it the points they are to learn. 
In the grammar grades a more independent method of draw- 
ing should be taught. The simplest construction lines are the 
best, provided they are sufficient guides. Show how they are 
derived from the continent. Discard letters or figures as far as 
possible, and use in their stead the names of places or geo- 
graphical forms. I would use construction lines only in the 
drawing of the continents, the United States, and the state in 
which the pupil lives, as in these, at least comparative accuracy 
is desired; yet the lines may be omitted in all when acceptable 
maps can be produced without them. Each pupil may devise 
his own measurements for the other states and countries. 
Neatnecs and accuracy in the execution of the work should 
never be ignored, yet much time may be spent upon the coast- 
line and mountains, which might be more profitably employed. 
The principal mountain systems of a continent determine its 
shape and coast-line, regulate the drainage, and influence the 
climate. Truer conceptions are gained by drawing the moun- 
tains first, then the lakes and rivers, and lastly the coast-line. 
Draw the map in parts as it is studied from day to day, taking 
a week or a month if necessary for its completion. The draw- 
ing of a map upon paper, using the book and making careful 
measurements with a ruler, fixes the continent in memory, but 
the ultimate result to be secured is the production of the map 
upon the blackboard without aids. 

Sand may be used with very excellent results in represent- 
ing physical features. The pupil should commence with the 
s.'&ool grounds, then his father's farm or some portion of the 
neighborhood, following with that which he can see only in parts, 
like the sub-district, then with that which he can not see at all, 
ar. a distant country or continent. There is no exercise, better 



METHOD AKH MATTER. 



than modeling for developing the observation. Comparative 
hights are all that can be shown. Any representation is a great 
exaggeration. When the pupils have become somewhat pro- 
ficient in the work, putty may be used instead of sand. The maps 
can then be preserved for a time. These maps may be made to 
show the leading productions of the state or continent by put- 
ting grain, pieces of mineral, etc., into the soft putty. The 
outline of the state or continent should be drawn before the 
sand or putty is used. 

DEFINITIONS. 

Definitions should be simple, clear, concise, and complete. 
Subject all to this critical test, relying on no text-book as sole 
authority. In this way judgment and discrimination are de- 
veloped. By illustration and the use of objects, lead the pupil 
to observe the salient points to be defined, and then to express 
his conception in words. Correct and criticise his language. 
The memory should not be overburdened with facts or state- 
ments, but the practice of the opposite extreme is equally errone- 
ous. A few good definitions, clearly comprehended, should be 
at the ready command of every pupil. 

THE RELATION BETWEEN GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY. 

We study the earth in its relation to man, the highest type 
of life. Geography and history are inseparable; one is the 
foundation, the other the outgrowth; one should be studied" in 
connection with the other. Countries, rivers, and towns sug- 
gest historical incidents which will give a pleasing variety to geog- 
raphy, and will greatly aid in remembering the location of these 
places, beside storing the mind with historical facts. History 
should be studied in connection with geography, and geography 
with history. Both need not be taken independently by the 
same class of -pupils. 





I! 



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yjnwy \5reegrappy. 



A few suggestion^ are given under this he id which may 
be of service to teachers in country sch^oR 

With all grades for which to provide, very little time can 
be devoted to a single one, especially when this one is the 
smallest, as the primary grade frequently is in the winter term 
of a country school; hence no definite period is fixed for the 
accomplishment of the work indicated. One or two lessons a 
week may be given, which will furnish seat work for the other 
days. By the time the pupil is old enough to study geogra- 
phy from a text-book, he will be at least partially prepared for 
it. Nothing suggested is intended to take the place of number, 
color, or form lessons. 

The object of all oral work is to give the child a simple, 
practical idea of things, to train him to observe, to think, and 
to express his thoughts and ideas in an intelligent wa3^. 

Before the work indicated is concluded, it will doubtless be 
advisable to allow the pupils to take up a text-book. 

The amount of time spent in oral work must be determined 
somewhat by the work of the teacher, the age and interest of 
tke pupils, and the desires of the patrons. "" Enough prelimi- 
nary instruction should be given to prevent a mere memorizing 
of the text-book. The study of geography from the school 
house and the home gives it life and reality. The study of the 
sub-district, township, and county can be continued at intervals 
after the book is introduced. Great care should be taken by 
the teacher to have the pupil grasp the thought, or to form a 
mental picture of the thing denned, and to express or describe it 
in his own language before a definition or statement is memor- 
ized. In teaching the forms of land and water, a pan of earth 
or sand with water, can be used with good results. Pictures 
and drawings are rarely used too much. 

From the first, accustom the children to regard the globe 
as a representation of the earth. Simple answers as "Men have 
sailed around it' ' are the best to give to their questions con- 
cerning its shape. 

INTRODUCTORY LESSONS. 
(Age, about seven.) 

I. Measurements. 

i . Cut a piece of pasteboard, one inch long, for each child. 
2. Require them to measure pencils, books, slates, etc. 



METHOD AND MATTER. 



3. Test the children upon the length of an inch. Re- 
quire them to draw inches upon slates or blackboard 
without the measure, then by measuring, to observe 
how nearly correct they are. 

4. If practicable, loan scissors to each child and let them 
cut paper or pasteboard into pieces, one inch long; or, 
you can ask them to bring such pieces from their 
homes. 

5. Have the pupils mark or cut inches into half-inches. 

6. Tell the pupils to lay twelve inches in a line. 
12 inches make 1 foot. 

7. Require each child to cut a ruler one foot long and 
divide it up into inches and half-niches. A paste- 
board ruler made by the child is preferable to any he 
can buy. 

8. With this ruler require the pupils to measure desks, 
seats, stove, table, windows, door, room, etc. 

Note. — Number lessons can be made ^ cry practical to the pupils in this 
way. Do not hurry over the work. You are laying the foundation of 
distance. It is very important to imprint upon the child's mind a correct 
idea of an inch and a foot. 

II, The School Room. 

1. Teach the pupil to draw the 
school room by straight lines, 
representing a foot by an 
inch. Put in the door, win- 
dows, table,, stove, and seats 
on this scale. Direct the 
pupils in measuring and 
making the calculations. 

*Let each pupil draw the 
picture on a large piece of 
paper, so that the work can 
be preserved from day to day. 

III. The Cardinal Points. 

1. Tell the child to stand with right hand toward the 
rising sun; right hand, east, etc. 

2. Require the pupils to point to objects in the room, 
naming the direction; also U objects outside of the 
room. 

3. Draw lines with chalk upon the floor and mark the 
cardinal points. 

4. Have the pupils put their slates upon the floor and 
draw lines and mark points upon them; top, north; 
bottom, south; etc. 

*Thick, smooth, -wrapping paper is good enough, and costs hut little. 









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12 GEOGRAPHY; 



5. Require the pupils to draw lines and mark points 
upon the blackboard; top, north; bottom, south; etc. 

Notes. — This series of lessons may be varied by introducing others upon 
natural forms in the neighborhood; as hill, brook, pond, island, etc. 

The work thus far indicated may well occupy a term, possibly longer. 

INTRODUCTORY LESSONS— {Continued). 

I. Measurements (Continued). 

1. Tell the pupil to cut three pieces of pasteboard or 
paper, each one foot long, and lay them in a line. 3 
feet make 1 yard. Call attention to the yard-stick, 
still found in many homes. 

2. Require each pupil to measure wood pile, school 
grounds, etc. 

3. 1 6)4 feet make 1 rod. Develop in the same way as 
foot and yard. Pupils are familiar with the term, 
rod. It is well to give them an idea of its length. 

4. When the study of the neighborhood or sub-district 
is taken up, give the pupil as clear and definite a con- 
ception as possible of the length of a mile and the size 
of an acre. 

II. The School Grounds. 

1. Require each pupil to draw a picture of the school 
grounds, representing a yard by an inch. Put in 
wood pile, school-house, etc. , on the same scale. If the 
teacher prefers, all may be drawn in straight lines on 
a plan similar to the school room. Call it a map 
instead of a picture. 

2. Mold the school grounds in sand. Procure an}*" flat 
surface, board or tin, of sufficient size. The finest 
sand you can find is the best. Dampen it a little. 
Arrange the sand in the shape of the school grounds. 
Represent the slightest elevation or depression, 
natural or artificial. Put in the wood pile, school- 
house, etc. , with ridges of sand. If the blackboard is 

; sufficiently large, represent a yard by a foot, instead 

of an inch as in the drawing. The pupils should do 
the work under the direction of the teacher. This is 
one of the best exercises to develop observation. 
Should it seem impracticable to introduce it during 
the hours of recitation and work, it may be done 
with propriety in the period of recreation. 
III. The Semi-cardinau Points. 

1 . Station one child in the center of the room and send 
four others to the different corners. Require them to 
name the direction of each from the one in the center. 

2. Draw lines upon the floor with chalk and mark the 
semi-cardinal points. 



METHOD AND MATTER. 



3. Draw lines and ma>k points on slates and also upon 
the blackboard. 

4. Require the pupils to give the direction of the dif- 
ferent objects in the room and upon tee grounds, 
from themselves. Aiso the direction of one object 
from another. 

IV. Neighborhood. 

1. Call attention to natural forms 

2. Give lessons on soil, plants, trees, etc. 

3. Locate farms. Give direction and distance of each 
from the school-house; also fk>m esch other. 

4. It would be an excellent exercise for each child to 
draw or mold his father's farm. A better lesson in 
the development of observation con Id not be given. 

5. Draw the sub-district upon the blackboard, locating 
the school-house, the homes of the pupils, natural 
forms of land and water, and any other points of inter- 
est. Require the pupils to copy this map upon their 
slates and also upon paper. 

6. When was the school-house built ? What teachers 
have taught in it ? Who is the oldest settler in the 
district ? Questions like these will serve to give a 
reality to history and to prepare the way for more 
important facts. 

7„ Give the name or number of the sub-district ; also of 
those adjoining. Locate the school-houses and per- 
haps other important features in these adjoining sub- 
districts. 

8. The township and county may be studied in a simple 
way. The following outlines may be suggestive: 



Township. - 



CName. 

Shape. 

Size. 

Sub-districts, or school districts 

Map. 

Natural forms * 

Towns. 

Boundaries. 

History. 
It 



County. - 



f Name. 

Shape. 

Size. 

Townships. 

Man. 

Natural forms.* 

Towns. 

Boundaries 

History, 
it 



♦Put in here whatever natural forms of land or water there may fce in the town- 
ship or county; as bluffs, hills, rivers, lakes, etc. 

tit may be well to add officers to these outlines, and to teach something con- 
cerning the government of the township aud county. Add any other important 
features, as railroads. 

Note. — A knowledge of our system of land surveys will make this work 
comparatively easy for the teacher. A map or plot of the sub-district can be 
secured from the township clerk or from some prominent resident. This 
will be divided up into sections, and their sub-divisions, so that the farms can 
be easily located and their distances from each other and from the school- 
house, counted or calculated. A township map of the county can doubtless 
be secured from the county superintendent. 



JJlafcljenjaMeal Seegpapljjy. 



The ordinary text-book in geography gives but little space 
to the discussion of the various problems of mathematical 
geography. On account of their difficulty, they are deferred 
to physical' geography and astronomy. 

The great majority of pupils will not pursue these branches 
as separate studies. There are many questions pertfming to 
the shape and motions of the earth, the changes in the seasons, 
and various other phenomena, which may be Wisely suggested 
by the capable teacher, and will excite the interest and thought 
of the child. 

Many of the teachers in rural districts do not know where 
to find the requisite information upon these subjects, hence I 
give a series of articles upon them. They are intended, simply 
as a means of information to the teacher, ' yet simple illustra- 
tions are frequently used, not only to make the thought, clear, 
but also to suggest methods of presenting it~ to others. By 
giving a little matter wisely, and questioning skillfully, the 
pupil can be led to do much of the thinking for himself. 

The matter given in the following articles is not arranged 
in the order it should be presented to the child. Simple facts 
and illustrations are followed by those more difficult to com- 
prehend. The amount and character of the information must 
be determined by the teacher in each particular case. 

In this little manual, the work in mathematical geography 
precedes that which is* given in physical, yet this should not 
be interpreted to mean that it should be studied first by the 
pupils; Judgment, and the ability to adapt the work to each 
individual case, are indispensable characteristics of a good 
teacher. 



14 



METHOD AND MATTER. 



15 



Mathematical.. < 



Geography. < 



Earth 



OUTLINE OF GEOGRAPHY 



f fPosiiion. 

Shape. 

Size. 

, Motions. 

1 Circles. 

Zones. 

Direction.* 

^Representation. 

Ocean, .,,!„ ... 
,- .■ Position. 

Continent, 0utH 

Country, . f Extent> 

ate d or .;;|Map. 

fLand. 



!sl 



p, . . } Descriptive. J Water 

rn - vsical - 1 Scientific. ..] Atmosphere 

i, l v Life, 

Sot h\ conditions. 

Nations. 

Religion. 
Polili '■•\ ■{ Government. 

Occupations. 

Education. 

Political Divisions. 



DEFINITIONS. 

Geography treats of trie earth and its inhabitants. 

Astronomical geography treats of the earth as a planet. 

Mathematical geography treats of the earth as a planet, 
and also includes certain facts of mathematics used in 
geography. 

Physical geography treats of the natural features of 
the earth. 

Descriptive physical geography describes the natural fea- 
tures of the earth. 

Scientific physical geography seeks to discover the laws 
which govern the natural phenomena of the earth and inquires 
into their causes, relations, and results. 

Political geography treats of the earth as affected by man. 

A- point is position without dimensions. 

A line has one dimension, length. 

A straight line continues in the same direction. 

A broken line changes its direction abruptly. 

A curved line changes its direction constantly. 

A surface has two dimensions and is bounded by -lines. 

A solid has three dimensions and is bounded by surfaces. 

A circle is a fiat surface bounded by a uniformly curved 
line. 

A sphere is a solid bounded by a uniformly curved surface. 
*The points of compass. Zesuth. Nadir. The horizon. 



i 6 geography; 



The circumference of the earth is the greatest distance 

around it. (The equator). 

The equatorial diameter is the greatest distance through 
the earth. 

The polar diameter is the shortest distance through the 
earth, passing through its center. 

The equator is a line passing around the earth equi-dis- 
tant from the poles. 

Parallels are lines passing around the earth equi-distant 
from the equator. 

Meridians are lines passing from pole to pole, crossing the 
equator at right angles. 

The ecliptic is a line passing around the earth bisecting 
the equator at an angle of 23^°. 

Note. — I have given a few definitions which I consider good, but 
they should not be accepted by another only upon the test which is stated 
in the introduction. 

*SCALE OF COMPARATIVE MAGNITUDES AND DIS- 
TANCES. (HERSCHEL). 

L,et a globe, 2 feet in diameter, be placed in the center of 
a wide plane for the sun. 

Mercury will then be represented by a mustard seed, 82 
feet distant from the globe. 

Venus, by a pea, 142 feet distant. 

The Earth, by a pea, 215 feet distant. 

Mars, by a pepper-corn, 327 feet distant. _ 

The Asteroids, by grains of sand, from 500 to 600 feet 
distant. 

Jupiter, by an orange, \ mile distant. 

Saturn, by a small orange, § mile distant. 

Uranus, by a cherry, f mile distant. 

Neptune, by a plum, 1^ miles distant. 

The nearest star, by another globe similar to that repre- 
senting the sun, but larger, nearly 8,000 miles distant. 

Now increase, in imagination, the diameter of the pea to 
8,000 miles, and all the other diameters and the distances pro- 
portionately, and you have some idea of the immensity of space, 
and of the bodies which roll in space. 

THE ROTUNDITY OF THE EARTH. 

PROOFS. 

i. -Circumnavigation. 

2. The appearance of ships near port. 

3. The shadows of the earth upon the moon. 

4. The horizon line. 

5. Analogy. 

6. Plumb lines. 

7. Tne apparent change in the position of the north star. 
(Draw illustrations for 2, 3, 4, 6, and 7.) 

♦Taken from Jackson's Astronomical Geography. 



METHOD AND MATTER. I 7 

The children of the ancients did not learn to repeat, ' 'The 
earth is round like a ball." Pythagoras, in the fifth century 
before Christ, advocated the rotundity of the earth and cited 
as a proof, the fact that at places east of the observer the 
sun rose earlier; west, later. He also noticed that as he 
went northward the pole star rose higher in the heavens; 
southward, it sank nearer the horizon. He knew the distance 
of the star from the earth to be so great that the few miles which 
he had traveled could not account for this apparent change 
in positien, hence he rightly concluded that he must have 
changed his position with reference to the star, or that the earth 
was curved, not flat. 

Sir John Mandeville, twelve hundred years later, in his 
book of travels, records the same fact. He also passed south 
of £he equator and observed that the north* star disappeared 
from view. He gives his conclusions in the following language: 
"Wherefore men may easily perceive that the land and sea are 
of -round shape and figure. For that part of the firmament 
•which is seen in one country is not seen in another. Men may 
prove both by experience and sound reasoning, that if a man, 
having passage by ship, should go to search the world, he 
might with his vessel sail around the world, both above and 
under it. ' ' 

It was also early observed that as a ship receded from the 
shore the masts were the last in sight. ' 'Why not the hull, the 
largest part of 4he ship," was a reasonable query. Also those 
upon the ships saw first the tops of the objects upon the land. 
. The only solution of these phenomena was that the earth is 
curved and obstructs the view. This conclusion, startling as it 
was, based upon otherwise unaccountable facts, found some 
advocates among the scholars of the succeeding centuries. 

The great problem of the middle ages was to find a nearer 
or a water route to the wealth of the Indies. Columbus, a 
believer in the rotundity of the earth, urged a westward voyage. 
Stopped by a new continent, the great discoverer did not fully 
realize his expectations, but Magellan, a few years later, by 
the circumnavigation of the earth, gave to the world an unde- 
niable proof of its shape in one direction at least. From this 
time the theory of the earth's rotundity has prevailed over 
ignorance, superstition, and prejudice. 

*A few years ago Mr. John Hampden of England wrote a 
book to prove that the earth is flat. He afterward offered to 
wager ^500 that his theory was correct. The wager was 
accepted, and to settle the question a portion of an English 
canal, where there were two bridges six miles apart, was chosen. 
Half way between the bridges a pole was erected. When a 
telescope was placed on the bridge at one end of the six miles 
♦Sharpies and Philip's Astronomy. 



1 8 geography; 



and pointed toward the bridge at the other end, the place on 
the pole which was just as far above the surface of the water 
as the bridges, was found to be several feet above the line of 
sight. This could be accounted for only on the theory that the 
surface of the earth was curved and hence arose between the 
two bridges. The referee in the case decided that this proved 
the rotundity of the earth. The teacher can illustrate this by 
sticking pins into an orange or an apple. 

Children are disposed to think of things as they see them. 
A mother once said to her little girl, ' 'The earth is round like 
a ball." She replied, "Why no, mamma, it is not, you see it 
is not. ' ' A task was then before the mother to prove her state- 
ment clearly to the comprehension of her little opponent. The 
simplest proofs, and these only, should be given first. Circum- 
navigation is a fact, and facts have more weight with children 
than theory or logic. The teacher may select some place upon 
the globe and chow that by continuing to sail in the same gen- 
eral direction, the ship will come back to the place of starting. 
In this way men have sailed around the earth. Were it flat 
there would be an abrupt change in direction, provided it could 
be circumnavigated at all. The older pupils should be required 
to trace Magellan's voyage upon the globe. This proves the 
rotundity of the earth from east to west, at least, and will 
satisfy the questionings of the child for a time. To-day the 
roundness of the earth in all directions is clearly demonstrated 
by travel. If we start from any place on the earth's surface 
and travel either north or south, the stars in front of us will rise 
higher and higher, approaching or reaching our zenith; while 
those to our back will sink lower and lower until many of them 
will disappear entirely from our horizon. By astronomical 
observations and measurements it is also found that parallels 
grow shorter and meridians converge as the poles are approached.' 

The appearance of ships at sea is one of the simplest proofs 
to give a child, because it is easily illustrated and comprehended. 
Perhaps on the sea-shore circumnavigation should not be pre- 
ferred before it. Hold before the class a globe. Take a crab- 
apple with a prominent stem, and move it up the side of the 
globe which is turned away from the pupils. Ask them what 
part of the apple they can see first, and why they cannot see 
the rest. Take the apple into the farthest corner of the room; 
so far if possible that the stem will be invisible. Do this to show 
that, if nothing obstructs the view, the largest part of an object can 
be seen at a greater distance than the smaller parts. In a hilly 
country the sun shines first in the morning and last in the even- 
ing on the tops of the mountains. In Holland when water covers 
a portion of the level surface, teachers sometimes illustrate before 
their pupils the shape of the earth by setting up three stakes 



METHOD AND MATTER. 1 9 



in a line, at a sufficient distance apart, each the same hight 
above the water. Then by sighting from the first to the third, 
the middle stake is observed to be higher than the others. 
Were it not for the irregularities of the surface, the same fact 
could be demonstrated upon the land. The test fixed upon to 
settle the wager of Mr. John Hampden is based upon the same 
principle, the surface of the earth rises up between any two 
distant points upon it. 

Before considering the proof, ' "The shadow of the earth 
upon the moon," call attention to shadows; those cast upon a 
wall or the floor; those of trees and other objects cast upon the 
ground. On what conditions is a shadow cast ? Why is it cast ? 
Upon what does the size and distinctness depend ? Call atten- 
tion to the exact similarity of the shadow to the object which 
casts it. Bven the older scholars will find something to think 
of and to learn in connection with shadows. 

The pupils should understand something of the motions of 
the earth and moon, to know how the shadow or picture of the 
earth is obtained. *L,et some stationary object represent the sun. 
L,et the globe represent the earth and a crab-apple the moon. 
Move the earth around the sun and the moon around the earth. 
Whenever the moon is between the sun and the eaTth, we have 
the condition of a shadow, or an eclipse, somewhere. The time 
required for the revolution of the moon around the earth is 
29.53 days, thus the moon comes between the sun and earth 
twelve times in every year, thirteen times in some years. 
Hundreds of eclipses of the moon have been observed, in .vhich 
the earth has been in many different positions. As the 
shadow is always circular, it is an absolute proof that the 
earth is round. 

The horizon line, or where the earth and sky appear to 
meet, is a proof of rotundity, because it has been observed in 
almost every spot upon the earth, and it is always circular. A 
circular horizon line might be seen in many places were tlv 
earth flat. As an elevation is ascended, the horizon line enlarges 
more rapidity than it could do were the surface of the earth 
flat, hence it is doubly a proof of the rotundity of the earth. 

Analogical proofs are deductions based upon observation 
and reason. To the unaided eye the planets, Jupiter and 
Venus, are very large and bright, yet they seem to be only rays, 
or points, of light. Through a medium sized telescope they 
are readily seen to be spherical objects. The planets belong 
to one -system. We can reasonably conclude that the conditions 
which would make any of them round would make all of them 
so. The earth is a planet and hence must be round. 

All fluids, unless prevented by gravitation, naturally 

: uc stove or a large pumpkin may lie used for this purpose. 



4 2o geography; 



! ! 



assume a spherical form. A drop of water, mercury, or oil are 
good illustrations. The mercury can be poured upon a hard 
substance without losing its form. Oil can be poured upon 
water where its round globules can be distinctly seen. The 
formation of shot is an interesting demonstration of the same 
fact. The tendency of fluid matter to assume this form is due 
to the attraction of the different particles for each other. The 
power of cohesion holds them in the form of a globe, when the 
attraction of gravitation is not strong enough to pull them 
apart. Geology teaches us that the earth was once in a fluid 
condition, so we conclude that by natural laws it would have 
taken a spherical form. Thus there are two strong analogical 
proofs of the rotundity of the earth. 

*A plumb-line points to the center of the earth. If two 
lines are dropped from high towers, a sufficient distance apart, 
and the distances are measured between the tops, the centers, 
and the bases of the lines, it will be seen that the lines are 
not parallel, but are nearest together at the surface of the earth 
and farthest apart at the top. This proves that the plumb-lines 
point to a common center, which could only be true on a circular 
body. Illustrate this by sticking pins or splints into an apple, 
each pointing toward the center of the apple; also draw a circle 
and erect two lines upon it, connected by dots to the center 
of the circle. 

Engineers in laying out eanals make an allowance for the 
curvature of the earth. I add this simple example, taken from 
the Mechanical News, to show the curvature to the mile. I^et 
the radius of the earth be the perpendicular of a right-angled 
triangle. Take one mile for the base. Find the hypotenuse. 
The excess in length of the hypotenuse over the perpendicular 
is the curvature in one mile. It is about eight inches, varying 
a little from the poles to the equator. A canal of sufficient 
length, dug in a comparatively level surface, the bottom of 
which is kept on a true level, will decrease in depth toward the 
ends. 

Pupils may have difficulty in comprehending how the 
apparent change in the position of the north- star is a proof of 
the rotundity of the earth. By passing a pencil over a globe, 
it will easily be seen that when travelling on a meridian, if the 
earth is curved, the zenith and horizon line will be continu- 
ally changing, and this will cause the apparent change in the 
position of the star; hence the observed changes in position are 
considered a good proof of the curvature of the earth. The 
same change is observed in other stars and constellations. 

There are other proofs of rotundity, but the discussion of 
these is sufficient. 

*The slight variation is of no importance in this .illustration. 



METHOD AND MATTER. 



THE OBLATENESS OF THE EARTH. 

A , PROOFS. 

i. Analogy. 

2. The variation in the length of degrees of latitude. 

3. The variation in the weight of a body. 

It is not best at first to say anything concerning the 
oblateness of the earth. The flattening is only about t }q of its 
diameter. It is too slight to be observed in an eclipse of the 
moon by the earth. 

Imagine a globe, five feet in diameter; its radius would 
be thirty inches. 3-^ of thirty inches is one -j 1 ^ of an inch. 
This in a globe could be detected only by measurement, hence 
it is not inaccurate to allow the pupil to conceive of the globe 
as a sphere; its exact shape need not be mentioned until he 
is fully able to comprehend it. 

Illustrate the meaning of the words, oblate and prolate, 
by drawings or some plastic substance. Cite as an example of 
the first, an orange; of the second, a lemon. 

I regard the analogical proofs of the exact shape of the 
earth the simplest and hence the best to present first. Saturn 
is flattened about T x x of its diameter; Jupiter, y 1 ^. The oblateness 
of these planets is clearly observed through the telescope. A 
conclusion, similar to the one given in this connection under 
the rotundit)^ of the earth, can be drawn. 

A plastic body, rotating, becomes oblate because of the 
unequal centrifugal force; the tendency of the particles to be 
thrown off being greatest in the central part of the surface. 
This can be finely demonstrated with a flexible hoop. 

Every circle, whether great or small, contains 360 parts; 
each part is called a degree. The length of a degree depends 
upon the size of the circle. A degree then is a measure of 
curvature, rather than of length. Latitude is distance from 
the equator, measured on a meridian circle. Were the earth 
a perfect sphere, degrees of latitude would be equal in length, 
but they vary in the proportion that the earth varies from an 
exact sphere. By measurement it is found that degrees 
of latitude gradually increase in length from the equator 
towards the poles. Dr. Gardner gives the length of a degree 
near the Arctic Circle as 4,000 feet longer than one near the 
equator. This proves that the nearer one approaches the pole, 
the greater the length required for the requisite amount of 
curvature, or that the earth is flattened at the poles. 

A body increases a little in weight from the equator to the 
poles. The nearer an object approaches the center of an 
attracting body, the greater the power exerted, provided the 
body is on the surface; hence we conclude that an object at 
the poles is nearer the center of gravity than it is at the 
equator, or that the earth is oblate. 



GEOGRAPHY; 



I. Kinds. THE MOTIONS OF THE EARTH. 

i. Rotary. 

a. Time. b. Position of axis. c. Proofs. 
2. Revolutionary. 

a. Time. b. Shape of orbit. 

II. Results. 

i. The seasons. 
2. Day and night of varying lengths. 

The Ptolemaic system was founded not only upon one 
great truth, "the rotundity of the earth," but upon an equally 
great error, ' 'the earth is stationary and the heavenly bodies 
revolve around it. ' ' It remained for Copernicus, more than 
1300 3^ears later, to introduce the solar, or sun system, and for 
Galileo to fearlessly proclaim the movements of the earth. 

The fact that we are unconscious of motion is no proof 
against it. The atmosphere moves with the earth, so we do 
not cut through it. When motion is smooth, uniform, and 
rapid, whether on water or a railway train, we have in some 
degree the sensation of rest. 

*' 'Insensible motion often causes a similar delusion. The 
motion of a balloon through the air is so extremely gentle- 
however rapid it may be — that, if one closes his eyes or looks 
only at- the sky, it seems motionless; and, upon looking down- 
ward, the sensation is strong that the earth is falling away 
from the balloon, rather than that the balloon is rising above 
the earth. Although we are totally insensible of the earth's 
motion, 3-et we feel that it would be almost as absurd for us 
to regard the earth as stationary and the heavens in motion 
around it, as for the aeronaut to regard his balloon as fixed 
and the earth descending below it." 

A toy globe is excellent to represent to a child the move- 
ments' of the earth. Take an apple or an orange and run a 
knitting needle through it, spin it between the hands or fingers, 
and as you do so, pass it around. some object, representing the 
sun. This will clearly illustrate the double motions of the earth. 
As it is important that first impressions should be accurate, hold 
the needle so as to property indicate the inclination and parallel- 
ism of the axis. Be careful also to represent the movements 
from west to east. The axis of the earth is the line upon which 
it rotates. It is not perpendicular to the plane of the orbit, but 
it is declined therefrom 23 27 s 31" usually given 23^-°. 

THE ROTATION OF THE EARTH. 

PROOFS. 

:. The apparent revolution of the sun and stars. 
2 Analogy. 

3. Snot falling irom a tower. 

4. The oblateness of the earth. 

5. The variation in the weight of a body. 
(Draw an illustration lo: ; 3.) 

*TaUfn from Jacksim's Astronomical Geography, 



METHOD AND MATTER. 23 

The simplest proof of rotation is the apparent revolution 
of the heavenly bodies around the earth. The sun appears to 
rise in the east in the morning-, and to set in the west at night. 
The stars appear to rise in the east at night, and to set in the 
west in the morning. Either these all revolve around the 
earth, or the earth rotates on an axis; one conclusion or the 
other must be true to account for the phenomena. The astro- 
nomical knowledge of to-day forbids the first, hence proves the 
second . 

Spots or peculiarities on the surface of the sun, moon, and 
larger planets, disappear and then re-appear upon the opposite 
side. Such phenomena are observed to occur periodically, and 
can only be explained by the rotation of the bodies. If these 
all rotate, it is reasonable to conclude that the earth also rotates. 

Shot, when dropped from a high tower, falls a little to the 
east of a line extending from the point from which it is dropped. 
This fact, when it was first observed, caused serious perplexity, 
but it was finally satisfactorily explained on the assumption 
of the rotation of the earth. In the movement of the earth 
upon its axis, the top of the tower circumscribes a larger circle 
than the base. The shot will have the onward motion of the 
top, which will carry it a little to the east of the base. *"If 
the tower were at the equator and five hundred feet high, the 
shot would fall about 2 inches east of the line extending from 
the point from which it was dropped. ' ' At Hamburg, Germany, 
from a tower 235 feet high, shot fell ^ of an inch east of the line 
extending from the point from which it was dropped. This 
experiment has been made many times from towers and in deep 
mines, with the same result, and it is regarded as one of the 
best proofs of the rotation of the earth; 

In the discussion of the exact shape of the earth, 
mention was made of the fact, that a body is lighter at 
the equator than elsewhere, but this difference in weight 
is not all due to oblateness. In the rotation of the earth, 
bodies upon the surface pass through distances varying 
in length, these distances decreasing from - the equator. The 
greater the distance passed through, the greater the tendency 
to be thrown from the earth. This is in opposition to 
gravitation and thus lessens the weight of the body on the 
surface. The simple illustration of water thrown from a 
grindstone, or of boys, playing crack the whip, can be used 
with advantage. There are good authorities for the following 
statement: A body, weighing 194 lbs. at the equator, will 
weigh 195 lbs. at the poles, or it increases T ^ of its weight; 
-g|-o- of this is due to oblateness; the difference between T ^- T and 
g^-o or about -$^j, is due to rotation. 

The exact shape of the earth is also a proof of rotation. 
*Sharpless and Philip's Astronomy. 



24 geography; 



A plastic body, rotating, becomes oblate. The earth was once 
a plastic body, and it is flattened at the poles; hence we conclude, 
with good reason, that it rotates. It is shown by computation 
that the amount of the compression of the earth corresponds 
exactly to what its mass and velocity must have produced. 

* "Taking the known dimensions of the earth and assum- 
ing, as a fact, its rotation in twenty-four hours, Sir Isaac 
Newton calculated what form it must of necessity take. He 
found that it would be a spheroid and that the equatorial 
diameter would exceed the polar diameter by a certain length, 
which is almost exactly equal to the difference, which has 
since, by actual measurement of the earth, been shown to exist 
between these diameters." 

RESULT. 

The time of the earth's rotation upon its axis is called a 
da3^. It is almost without variation from year to year. The 
tendency of the tidal wave and the equatorial current may be 
to retard the motion; but the continued cooling of the crust 
accelerates it, so that a day is, at the most, only -^ of a second 
longer than it was 2500 years ago. The sidereal day is the 
time which elapses between two successive transits of the same 
fixed star across a particular meridian. This is the exact period 
of the earth's rotation. The solar day is the time between 
two successive transits of the sun across a meridian, and it is 
23 hr. 56 min. 4 sec. or four minutes longer than a sidereal 
day. This difference is due to the movement of the earth in 
its orbit; the earth must make a little more than one rotation 
before the sun will be a second time over the meridian of a 
place. From this it is easily perceived that the earth rotates 
on its axis at least 366 times in a year. 

For convenience in reckoning time, the civil day is 24 hours. 

THE REVOLUTION OF THE EARTH. 

The astronomical knowledge of to-day unquestionably 
proves the revolution of the earth. It moves around the sun 
from west to east, varying slightly, if any, from age to age. There 
are different ways of determining the time of the revolution. 
The sidereal year is the time between two successive positions 
of the earth in its orbit with reference to a particular siar. 
It is given as *365 d. 6 hr. 9 min. 9.6 sec. This is the true 
time of the earth's revolution. The tropical year is the time 
between two successive passages through the vernal equinox. 
It is given as "("365 d. 5 hr. 48 min. 46.0544 sec, or a little 
more than 20 minutes shorter than the sidereal year. This 
difference is due to the precession of the equinoxes, an expla- 
nation of which may be found in any astronomy. The com- 

*Bi'ocklesby's Astronomy. 
tLockyer's Movements of the Earth. 



METHOD AND MATTER. 2$ 



mon or civil year contains 365 days, except every fourth year, 
which adds the 29th of February, making 366 days. 

Cause the pupil to think of the earth as tracing a line in 
its annual measurement. This is the orbit of the earth, or its 
path around the sun. Aid him in conceiving of this line as 
bounding a great plane, which passes through the center of the 
sun. This is the plane of the earth's orbit. The line which 
this plane marks upon the surface of the earth, is called the 
ecliptic. The ecliptic is the circumference of a great circle, 
which bisects the equator at an angle of 23I- . It is the 
yearly path of the vertical ray upon the earth, or what the path 
would be without the rotation of the earth. 

The orbit of the earth is slightly elliptical. This causes 
a little difference in the distance of the earth from the sun in 
different positions in the orbit. The earth is said to be in 
perihelion when nearest the sun; in aphelion, when farthest 
from it. *The earth receives -^ more heat and light when in 
perihelion than when in aphelion. 

The average distance of the earth from the sun is given as 
92,628,000 miles. 

GEOGRAPHICAL CIRCLES. 
I. Of Situation. 

x - S qua H t0r - I Great. 

2. Meridians. \ 

3. Parallels. Small. 
II. Climatic. 

1. Tropics. ) s u 

2. Polar circles. ) 

3. Ecliptic. Great. 

There has been a confusion between geographical and 
mathematical circles. It has arisen from the fact that certain 
lines on the surface of the earth, which are the circumferences 
of true circles, have been called circles. Teach from the first 
the correct idea of the circle; a plane, rather than a line. Cut 
paper to represent it. The equator, parallels, meridians, tropics, 
polar circles, and ecliptic may be <fefined in two ways; as, 
for example, ' 'The equator is a line passing around the earth 
midway between the poles;" or, "The equator is the circum- 
ference of a great circle, midway between the poles." 

Note. — Draw a sphere. If on a blackboard extending north and 
south, represent the sphere im lined toward the north. Draw upon the 
cphere the circles which are m«:ot r 'oned in the outlines. Represent also 
the circle of illumination, or the day circle, on June 21. 

THE RESULTS OF THE MOTIONS OF THE EARTH. 

1. The seasons. 

2. Day and night of varying lengths. 

the change of the seasons. 
I. Cause. The change in the position of the sun's vertical rays 
upon the earlh. 
*01msted's Astronomy. 



26 GEOGRAPHY 



i. Due to, 

a. The revolution of the earth around the sun, with its axis 
inclined and always pointing toward the north star, or 
parallel to itself in every position. 

b. The rotation of the earth. 

(Draw a figure making the orbit slightly elliptical.) 

The teacher of geography may well congratulate himself 
if he succeeds in presenting the changes in the seasons in such 
a way that his pupils will clearly comprehend the causes and 
results of these common but intricate phenomena. A vertical, 
compared with an oblique ray, heats less area of surface 
and passes through less atmosphere, hence it imparts more 
heat to the earth and its light is of greater intensity. This 
can be illustrated with two crayons and a globe. Let one 
crayon represent a vertical ray, touching the earth squarely; 
let the other crayon represent a slanting ray, touching the earth 
obliquely; cut the chalk so that it will rest upon the globe. 
Now compare the ends of the crayon. The seasons are due to 
a change in the position of the vertical rays upon the earth. 
One-half of the earth is always under the influence of the sun's 
rays. Represent the earth and sun, as nearly as possible, upon 
the same plane; think of a straight line connecting their cen- 
ters. The position of the vertical ray upon the earth is where 
this line enters the surface. *The movement of the vertical 
ray above and below the equator, depends iipon the inclina- 
tion and position of the axis. Rotate the body representing the 
earth, and at the same time move it around the object repre- 
senting the sun. Give care to the directions of the motions, 
and the inclination and parallelism of the axis. From this 
illustration the pupil can easily conceive of the movement of 
the vertical rays of the sun upon the earth. They follow a 
double spiral line between the tropics, the onward motion 
being about 18 miles per day. f Require the pupils to trace 
the earth in its orbit, stating the season and the lengths of the 
days and nights in each hemisphere and at the equator on 
March 21, June 22, September 23, and December 22. The 
velocity of the annual motion is greater in perihelion than in 
aphelion, while the distance to be traversed is less; this causes 
a variation in the day of the month on which the equinoxes 
and solstices occur. This is indicated, at least relatively, in the 
dates given. 

The varying lengths of day and night are due to the posi- 
tion of the axis. At the time of the equinoxes the circle of 
illumination passes through the poles and bisects the equator 
and every parallel; then the days and nights are equal all over 

*The pupils should fully understand this movement Defore proceeding further. 
It is well to darken the room. With a bright light and a large orange the circle of 
illumination can be seen quite distinctly. 

+ On March 21 the vertical ray is at the equator ; it is spriug in the northern 
hemisphere, and fall in the southern The circle of illumination passes through the 
poles. Days and nights are everywhere equal, &c. 



METHOD ANI> &1ATTKK. **J" 

the earth. As the vertical ray advances from the equate^ tfc# 
circle of illumination extends beyond oiie pole and recedes frou 
the other; it still divides the equator into equal part*, butt L 
every parallel into unequal parts; hence the days and xiigbTs * 
are always equal at the equator, and excepting, in Mareli and 
September, always unequal elsewhere. In three months the 
circle of illumination moves from the pole to the polar circle, 
and then back again in the same length of time; this give? a 
day of six months at one pole and at the same time a n!<jnt 
corresponding in length at the other. If the greater part of tne 
parallels are within the circle of illumination the days are longer 
than the nights; if without, the reverse condition prevails. In 
the consideration of this subject no account is taken of the 
variation due to the refraction and the reflection of light. 

It is well to test the knowledge of the pupil by questions 
like the following: "Were the axis of the earth inclined 15 , 
or 30 , or 90 , what would be the effect upon the position of 
the climatic circles, the seasons, and day and night?" "Why 
does the sun shine in our north window morning and evening 
in summer?' ' or, ' 'Why does the sun appear to rise and set north 
of our latitude in summer, and still be south of our zenith at 
midday?" The following explanation and illustration may aid 
the pupil in solving the last problem. First call attention to 
the fact that the cardinal points are confined to the earth; 
north is toward the north pole. When the rays of the sun are 
vertical at the tropic of Cancer, the circle of illumination extends 
23!- beyond the north pole, so the longest day on the Arctic 
Circle is twenty-four hours, and at midnight the sun may 
be seen in the northern horizon. The northern hemisphere is 
turned toward the sun and an observer on the Arctic Circle at 
midnight, June 22, sees the sun over the north pole; it then 
shines directly in a north window. Illustrate this with some 
stationary object for the sun, an orange for the earth, and a pin 
for the observer. Stick the pin into the orange on the Arctic 
Circle, and hold the apple to represent the sun at midday, 
June 22. Note the direction of the object representing the sun, 
from the pin, or observer. It is at least away from north. 
Rotate the orange half way around; it is midnight where the 
observer stands; he looks directly over the pole to see the sun. 
Place the pin south of the Arctic Circle; it may be at latitude 
42 °. Again rotate and note the direction of the observer from 
the sun just before it passes out of sight; it is N. W. and repre- 
sents the setting sun. Mark as the pin comes into view from 
the opposite side; it is N. E. and represents the rising sun. 
Hence a short time in the morning and in the evening the sun 
will shine in a north window in our latitude. It is due to the 
position of the earth from the sun, and the apparent change in 
direction, caused by the rotation of the earth. 



2S 



geography; 



II. 



SURFACE MEASUREMENTS 
Latitude. 

i. How marked upon maps and globes? 
2. Length of a degree, 
Longitude, 
i. Prime meridian. 

2. How marked upon maps and globes? 

3. Length of a degree. 

4. Relation to time. 

5. Standard time. 

6. International date-line. 



A table showing the number of statute miles in a degrse of longitude 
on the given parallels of latitude, taken from Outlines of Map Drawing, by 
Frederick E. Bangs. 



Parallel of 


Statute Miles 


Parallel of 


Statute Miles 


Latitude. 


in a Degree. 


Latitude. 


in a Degree. 


0. 


69.16. 


45- 


48.87. 


5- 


68.74. 


5°- 


44.44. 


10. 


67.96. 


55- 


39-56. 


IS- 


66.66. 


60. 


34-59- 


20. 


64.86. 


65' 


29.24. 


25- 


62.57. 


70- 


23.67. 


30. 


59.80. 


75- 


17.91. 


35- 


56.53. 


80. 


12.02. 


40. 


52.92. 


85- 


6.03. 


42. 


5i-53- 


90. 


0.00. 



THE CALENDAR. 

The solar, tropical, or natural year, is the actual time 
required for the earth to revolve around the sun, or ^365 d. 5 hr. 
48 min. 46.0544 sec. The ancients counted but 365 days in 
a year, which was nearly one-fourth of a day less than the 
solar year. In course of time there was a difference of 90 days 
between the Roman calendar and the position of the earth in 
its orbit. Julius Caesar caused the 90 days to be added to the 
year f45 B. C, making it 455 days long. He also introduced 
an extra day one year in four to prevent a recurrence of the error. 
This made the year on the average about 11 min. 13.94 sec - too 
long, or about three-fourths of a day in a century. This 
system of reckoning time was in force in all of the civilized 
.countries for a little over 1600 years, and is known as the 
Julian calendar. During this period the error amounted to ten 
days. 

In 1582 Pope Gregory XIII. corrected and changed the 
calendar, and it was called after him the Gregorian. He 
declared October 5th to be October 15th. He also provided 

"Taken from "Movements of the Earth," by J. lS'onti»n Lo:kyer, F. K. S. 
fThis year is aptly called tlie "Year of Contu«:on " 



METHOD AND MATTER. 



49 



that every year, divisible by 100 but not by 400, should 
consist of 365 d. ; thus in four centuries there are but ninety- 
seven leap-years. By this ingenious device the difference 
between a solar year and & common, or civil year, does not 
amount to a day in 3000 years. Pope Gregory also changed 
the beginning of the year from March 1st to January 1st. The 
Gregorian calendar was soon adopted in all of the Catholic 
countries. The change was not made in England until 1752, 
when September 3rd was declared to be September 14th. Russia 
still uses the Julian calendar, which is now about twelve days 
behind the Gregorian. The change from one calendar to the 
other gives rise to the terms, Old Style and New Style. 

STANDARD TIME. 

A civil day consists of twenty-four hours. In a rotation 
of the earth a meridian moves through 360 , or 15 in an hour, 
15' of a degree in a minute, 15" of a degree in a second. 
Places, then, on the earth vary in time according to their dis- 
tances east or west of each other. In the past there has been 
a good deal of difference and confusion between the time 
adopted by different railroads, and between railroads and local 
time. In 1883 the officers of the different roads of the United 
States and Canada, adopted a uniform system, in which all 
changes are made by hours. The meridians, 6o°, 75 , 90 , 
105 , and 120 west of Greenwich were selected as the Standard 
Meridians. They are 15 apart, which is equivalent to one 
hour of time. This divides the United States and Canada into 
five belts: ^Inter-colonial, Eastern, Central, Mountain, and 
Pacific. The Standard Meridian runs near the central part o^ 
the belt. On account of the termini of the different railroad 
lines, the boundaries of the belts are irregular. All railroad 
trains run on standard time. Cities, located near the central 
part of a belt, have also adopted it for social purposes. 

•The meridian of 60° has been selected, but Inter-colonial Time is not yet In 




METHOD AND MATTER. 



31 



Outlines ir) Bl^ysieal (Seepapljy. 



Continents. 



Q I 

< 



Islands 



Relief, 



f f Mountains. 

H. 11 1 I Hills. 

I Plateaus. 

[ Water-sheds. 

„ ,, ( Longitudinal. 

Valleys. ^ T & 

* I Iransverse. 

Marine 

Kinds. 



Lowlands. 



Plains.-^ 



Contour- 
forms. 



{ Peninsulas. 
j Isthmuses. 



Capes. 



(Islands. 



Names 



Alluvial. 
Undulating. 

("Prairie s 

I Llanos. 
J Silvas. 
' j Pampas. 

I Steppes. 

(_ Heaths. 



Divisions. 



Ocean. . \ 



at 



f Pacific. 
I Atlantic. 

Indian. 

Antarctic. 

^Arctic. 

f o 1 Inland, 

beas. . ■< t-, , 

/ Border. 

Branches. ^ Gulfs or Bays. 

I Straits... £ Harbors. 

(Channels. ) Sounds. 

( Waves. 

Movements. ■] Tides. 

( Currents. 

f , ( Head. 

j Parts - ) Foot. 

\ Mountain . 

I Lowland 

Springs. 

Ponds. 



Lakes 



-( Kinds. 

I' 
Forms of 



Fresh. 
Salt. . 



Inland. . ^ 



Rivers . 



Parts. 



f Source. , D . , , • 
■o , { Right. 

1 Banks. 4 T 'Z. 
-o , / Left. 
Bed. ' 

(j Mouth. 

["Brooks. 

Small 1 Creeks. 

Streams, j Rivulets. 

[Rills. 

„ ' \ Main Stream. 

Systems. . J. ™ ., , . 
J I Iributanes.. . 



Ba sin. 



32 geography; 



THE ATMOSPHERE. 

I. Position, Hight, and Density. 
II. Movements, or Winds, 
i. Causes. 2. Kinds. 
III. Climate. 

1. Law for the distribution of heat.* 

a. Modifications. 
1'. Relief. 

2'. Prevailing winds. 
3'. Soil and' vegetation. 
4'. Water. 
5'. Ocean currents. 
6'. Length of day. 

b. Isothermal lines. 

2. Capacity of air for containing moisture. 

3. Kinds. 

a. Astronomical. 

b. Physical. 

1'. Continental, or Inland. 
2'. Oceanic, or Maritime. 

LIFE. 
I. Conditions. 

1. Heat and light. 

2. Moisture and food. 
II. Zones. 

i. Tropical. 
2. Temperate. 

a. Warm. ) „ , . 
7 n u \ Boundaries. 

b. Cold. 

• 3. Frigid. 
III. Kinds. 

1. Vegetable. 

2. Animal. 
a. Races of men. 

1'. Primary. 

a\ Caucasian. 

b '. Mongolian. 

c'. African. 
2'. Secondary. 

a\ Malayan. 

b\ American Indian. 

c\ Australian. 



'It is hottest under the vertical ray and diverges as you go from it. 



METHOD AND MATTER. 



33 



©lifeline ©f fielitoeal GeefFapljy, 



I. 


Social Conditions 

i Savage. 2. Semi-civilized. 3. Civilized. 




II. 


Nations. 

1. English, German, American, etc. 




III. 


Government. (Civil). 

1. Monarchy. 

a. Absolute, b. Limited. 

2. Democracy. 

a. Pure. b. Representative. 




IV. 


Religion. , 






I. Jewish. \ 


( Polytheistic 




2. Christian. 1 Monotheistic. 4. Pagan. 


\ Pantheistic. 




3. Mohammedan. ) 


[ Atheistic, 


V. 


Occupations. 




VI. 


Education. 




VII. 


Political Divisions. 





OUTLINE FOR THE STUDY OF THE STATE IN WHICH THE 
PUPIL LIVES. 



OUTLINE FOR THE STUDY 
OF THE COUNTY. 



Situation. 
Boundaries. 
Latitude. 
Longitude. 

ToSps. j Congressional. 



f Situation. 
I Boundaries, 
I Latitude. 
Position. ■{ Longitude 
Ranges.. . . 



( Square miles. 



Acres. 



Shape 

Extent 

Map. 

Relief. 

Lakes or ponds. 

Rivers. 

Resources. 

Population. 

Cities, towns, and villages. 

Railroads, , ,-, , , 
o u 1 \ traded, 

Schools. . . . . \ t^.. , . ' , 
xt f District, etc 

Newspapers. l 4 

Public buildings. 

Officers. 

Courts. 

History. 



^Townships. ] 
C R plafivp ' 



Eastern, 
Western. 
Southern tier. 
Northern tier. 



Resources. 



" " ( Relative. 
Extent •] Area. 
■pr "' ( Dimensions. 

"' ( General character. 
Relief. ■] Water-sheds. 

( Altitude. 
Lakes. 
Rivers. 
Climate. 

Soil. 

Minerals. 
Water-power, etc. 
Natural curiosities. 
Exports. 
Imports. 
Population. 
Cities. 
Railroads. 

r State. 
Schools. < Sectarian. 
( Private. 

( Charitable. 
( Penal. ( Executive. 
("State. •] Legislative, 
(judicial. 
C Congressmen. 
U. S. j Presidential 

( Courts, [electors 



Institutions. 



Government. 



(^History. 
"This outline is applicable to any state. Topics can be omitted or added . 



34 



geography; 



SAMPLE OUTLINES FOR. THE STUDY OF DIFFERENT 

STATES. 



^ 
fc 



Boundaries. 

Extent.* 

Map. 

Relief. 

Lakes. 

Rivers. 

Resources. 

Cities. 

School. 

History. 



31 



f Boundaries. 

Extent* 

Map. 

Relief. 
j Lakes. 
I Rivers 

Capes. 

Islands. 

Bavs. 

Climate. 

Resources. 

Industries. 

Cities. 
^Schools. 



f Boundaries. 
Extent.* 
Map. 
Relief. 
Lakes. 
Rivers. 
Capes. 
g 1 Kay. 
>-> I Climate. 
< | Resources 
° Natural curicjs- 
I People. [ities. 
I Cities. 
I Schools. 
^History. 



81 



{ Boundaries. 

Extent* 

Map. 

Relief. 
| Lakes. 
I Rivers. 

Capes. 

Islands. 
I Bays. 

Strait. 

Climate. 

Resources. 
I Cities. 
(^History. 



♦Teach only rtlative extent. Compare the different states with Iowa. 

Note. — These outlines are all formed on the same plan. The order of 
study is mathematical, physical and political geography. The outline for 
a continent is applicable to all of the continents, Mso for an ocean, to all of 
the oceans. Teach the pupils to construct outlines for all of the states and 
countries which they study. Topics may be added or omitted. 



OUTLINE FOR THE STUDY OF A CONTINENT. 

i Situation. 
Boundaries. 
Latitude and Longitude. 
Mathematical Figure. 

( Relative. 
Extent.. •] Area. 

( Dimensions. 
Map. 

f C Primary.. . ~\ Ranges. 

| Axes. 1 v Peaks. 

Relief. *{ ( Secondary. ) Plateaus. 

Central Depression 



I 



H ] n . ( Lakes. 

Y, Drainage . \ n . 

° I River systems. 

f Peninsulas. 

r, . c Isthmuses. 

Contour-forms . . 4 ~ 

j Capes. 

(islands. 

iSeas. 
Gulfs or Bays. 
Straits. 
| Zones. 
I Races. 
I Countries. 
(^History. 



( Form of relief. 
( Water-sheds. 



METHOD AND MATTER. 



35 



SAMPLE OUTLINED FOR THE STUDY OF DIFFERENT 
COUNTRIES AND AN OCEAN. 



f Situation. 
I Boundaries. 
| Extern. 
| Map. 

Relief. 

Lake. 

Rivers 

Peninsula. 

Capes. 

Islands. 

Seas. 
$ <{ Bavs. 
I Strait. 
Ed I Channels. 

Climate. 

Resources. 

People. 

Government. 

Religion. 

Cities. 

Schools. 

Possessions. 
^ History. 



<i 



('Situation. 
1 Boundaries. 
I Extent, 
j Map. 

Relief. 

Lakes. 
' Rivers. 
| Islands. 

Seas. 

Bays 

Strait. 

Climate. 

Resources. 

People. 

Government. 

Religion. ■ 

Cities. 
{ History. 



f Situation. 

Shape. 

Size. 

Map. 
u <J Currents. 

Islands. 

S; reasso seas. 

Cables. 
^Routes of travel. 



SUGGESTIONS IN TEACHING PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

When map drawing is taught by the use of construction 
lines, I think it is best to begin with S. A. This continent is 
so simple that the pupils will not get discouraged over it. The 
maps of N. A. are given as samples. While learning the 
mountains, one lesson, at least, should be devoted to the study 
of a volcano. As a black board exercise, the lakes and rivers 
may be drawn without the mountains. Spend time here in 
learning the descriptive features of a country. An imaginary 
voyage up a river, or on a lake, describing productions and 
naming places on the wa)^, is an excellent exercise. A relief 
map of a continent is far better than any other to give a correct 
impression of the mountains, lakes, and rivers. It is the nat- 
ural way to draw the coast-line after the mountains. Require 
the pupils to draw upon the black board' each day as much of 
the map as is covered by the lesson, then to reproduce the work 
upon paper, so that when the study of the continent is finished, 
a complete map will have been drawn. The lists which are 
given under each continent are full enough for advanced classes. 
They should be simplified as occasion suggests. Some atten- 
tion should be paid to the crust of the earth, the foundation of 
mountains, the kinds of soil, the position, shape, and character 
of lakes, the sources, position, and courses of rivers, and the 
causes of winds and rain-fall. Incidental instruction upon 
these and various other kindred topics will excite the interest 
and thought of the pupils. 





j6 GEOGRAPHY; 


• 
A MOUNTAIN MAP OF NORTH AMERICA. 


-.,.%* 


%r^% 




i It#J| 


5 t.t y 

ft U if « 


1 // . ■ -.1 *V 


■ \ 11 Mm /f 


| I? | s if 


! II «* '-. 'II ii m 




»'i fc? \^'' ^# 13 


;-. ; ? i'W-- fc- «■*> v //."'fi 




■ I taw ~w Aftf 


?«1 H !| vin 




«H\iv fmWi ^/T tiffflLi-, 




*» 1} '■&,.,"%■*!& 


\ Xk ^Sw, 


i u "^m 


\ §U '"4% <% 


1 v €?v X § 


i *V!>%. 




1 ^Ss 


"iSSS 


KASTGES. PEAKS. 


2. Rocky. 1. St. Elias. 


II. Northern Coast. 2. Fairweather. 


III. Cascade. 3. St. Helens. 


IV. Sierra Nevada. 4. Hood. 


V. Coast. 5. Shasta. 


VI. Sierra Madre. 6. Whitney. 


VII. BlueKidge. 7. Pike's Peak. 


VIII. Alleghany, 8. Long's Peak. 


IX. Cumberland, 9. Fremont's Peak. 


X. Laurentide. 10. Hooker. 


XI. Ozark. 11. Brown. 


12. Mitchell, or Black. 


13. Washington. 








METHOD AND MATTER. 



37 



A RELIEF AND DRAINAGE MAP OF NORTH AMERICA. 







LAKES. 

A. Great Bear. 

B. Great Slave. 

C. Athabasca. 

D. Winnipeg. 

E. Manitoba. 

F. Superior. 

G. Michigan. 
H. Huron. 

I. St. Clair. 
J. Erie. 
K. Ontario. 
L. Champlain. 
M. Great Salt. 



RIVEES. 

a. Mackenzie. 

b. Churchill. 

c. Nelson. 

d. Severn. 

e. Saskatchawan. 
f St. Lawrence. 

g. Sorel, or Richelieu. 

h. Ottawa. 

i. Penobscot. 

j. Hudson. 

k. Susquehanna. 

1. James. 

m. Savannah. 



n. Mississippi. 

o Missouri. 

p. Ohio. 

q. Arkansas. 

r. Ecu. 

s. Rio Grande. 

t. Colorado. 

u. Columbia. 

v. Eraser. 

w. Yukon. 



A COAST LINE MAP OF NORTH AMERICA. 



Vol* 




C3 



CONTOUR FOEMS. 




ISLANDS. 


D. 


Fundy. 


PENINSULAS. 


l. 


Victoria Laud. 


E. 


Delaware. 


I. Melvill. . 


2. 


Cockburn Land. 


F. 


Chesapeake. 


11. Labia' or. 


3. 


( uiiibHrlau.i. 


G 


. Mexico. 


IH. Nova Scotia. 


4. 


Fox Land 


H 


. California. 


IV. Florida. 


5. 


South*' mi ton. 


I. 


»>an Francisco. 


V. Yucatan. 


6. 


Greenland. 


J. 


Puget Sound. 


VI. Lower California. 


7, 


Iceland. 


K 


Behring. 


VII. Alaska. 


8. 


Newfoundland. 


L. 


Bristol. 


ISTHMUS. 


9. 


KJMOe Breton 




STRAITS 


VIII. Tehuantepec. 


10 


Prince Edward's. 


a. 


Pud son. 


OAPBS. 


11. 


Long' Island. 


b. 


Davis. 


IX. Point Barrow. 


12. 


Bermuda. 


c. 


Belle Isle. 


X. Bal hurst. 


13 


Bahama. 


cl. 


Florida. 


XI. Chidlev. 


14. 


Greater Antilles. 


e. 


Yucatan. 


XII. Charles. 


15. 


Vancouv. r. 


f. 


Juan de Fuca. 


XIII. Cod. 


16. 


Queen Charlotte, 


g- 


Behring. 


XIV. Hatieras. 


17. 


Aleutian. 






XV. SaMe. 


BKANCB 






XVI San Lucas. 




SEAS, GULFS, OR BAYS. 






XVII. Mi ndocino. 


A. 


Hudson. 






XVIII. Flattery. 


B. 


Baffin. 






XIX. Prince of Wales, 


G 


St. Lawrence. 











NETHOD AND MATTER 


39 


I,ists of forms 


given for the study of the different Continents. 




SOUTH AMERICA. 




RELIEF. 


d. Rio Negro. 


ISLANDS. 


RANGES OF MTS . 


e. Cassiquiare. 


1. Lesser Antilles. 


I. Andes. 


£'. Purus. 


2. Trinidad. 


il. Brazilian. 


g. Madeira. 


3 Marajo.* 


III.. Paiime. 


h Tapajos. 


4. FaHland. 


PEAKS. 


i. Xuigii 


5. Tierra del Fuego. 


1. Cotopaxi. 


j. Tocantins. 


6. Desolation. 


2. Chimborazo. 


k . San Francisco 


7. Wellington. 


3. Iliampu. 


1 Rio de la Plata. 


8. Chiloe. 


4. Rorata. 


m. Parana. 


9. Juan Fernandez. 


5. Illimani. 


n. Paraguay. 


10. St. Felix. 


6 Atac:ima. 


o. Uruguay. 


11. Gaiapagos. 


7. Aconcagua. 


p. Colorado 


BR \NCHKS OF 


DESERT. 


CONTOUR FORMS. 


OOH.AN. 


IV. Atacama. 


PENINSULA 


SEA. 


PLAINS. 


I. Paraguana. 


A. Caribbean. 


8. Llanos 


ISTHMUS. 


GULFS OR BAYS 


9. Silvas. 


II. Panama. 


a. Darien. 


10. Pampas. 


CAPES. 


b. Venezuela. 


DRAINAGE. 


III. Gallinas. 


c. San Matias. 


LAKES. 


IV. St Rogue. 


d. St. George. 


* . Maracaybo. 


V. Frio. - 


e. Guayaquil. 


B. 'liticaca. 


VI. Horn. 


f. Panama- 


RIVKRS. 


' VII. Pillar. 


STRAIT. 


a. Magdalena. 


VII r. Parina. 


B. Magellan. 


b. Orinoco. 


IX. Blanco 




c. Amazon 


EUROPE. 


\ * Joannes. 


RELIRF 


i. Douro. 


7 Sicilly. 


RANGES OF MTS. 


j. Tagus. 


8. Candia. 


I. Alps. 


k. Meuse. 


9. Cyprus. 


11. Balkan. 


1. Weser. 


BRANCHES OF 


III. Pyrenees. 


m. Elbe. 


OUEAN. 


IV. Iberian. 


n. Oder. 


SEAS. 


V. Appenines. 


o. Vist ila. 


A. White. 


VI. Pindus. 


p. Dneiper. 


B. Caspian. 


VII. Carpathian. 


q. Don. 


C. Black. 


VIII. Sudetic. 


r. Volga. 


D. Azot. 


IX. Hartz. 


s. Ural. 


E. Marmora. 


X. Oaucausus. 


t. Dwina. 


F Aegean. 


VI. Ural. 


u. Dun a. 


G. Adriatic. 


XII. Scandinavian. 


COUTOUR FORMS. 


H. Irish. 


XIII. Valdai Hills. 


PENINSULAS 


I. North. 


PEAKS. 


T. Scandinavian. 


J. Baltic. 


1. Blanc.. 


11. Jutland. 


GULFS OR BAYS. 


2. Elburz. 


III. Cornwall. 


K Taranto. 


3. Vesuvius. 


IV. I'-erian. 


L. Venice. 


4. Etna. 


V. Italian. 


M. Geioa. 


5. Hecla. 


VI. Grecian. 


N. Lion. 


DRAINAGE. 


VII. Crimean. 


O. Biscay. 


LAKES. 


CAPES 


P. Riga. 


A. Geneva. 


VITI. The Naze. 


Q Finland. 


B. Wener. 


IX. Clear. 


R. Bothnia 


C. Wetter. 


X. Land's End. 


STRAITS AND CHANNELS. 


D. Ladoga. 


XI. Ortegal. 


a. Bosphorous. 


E. Onega. 


XII Finisterre. 


b. Dardanelles. 


RIVERS. 


XIII. St Vincent. 


c. Otranto. 


a. Rhine. 


XIV. Matapan. 


d. M<ssina. 


b. Rhone. 


ISLANDS. 


e. Gibraltar. 


c. Danube. 


l. Nova Zembla. 


f. St. George's. 


d. Po. 


2. Iceland. 


g. English. 


e. Seine. 


3. British. 


h. Dover. 


f. Loire. 


4. Baearic. 


i. Sk»ger Rack. 


g. Garonne. 


5 Corsica. 


j. Cattegat. 


h. Ebro". 


6. Sardinia. 









40 


GEOGRAPHY; \.-,,' } 




ASIA. 


RELIEF 


c. Yenisei. 5. New Guinea. 


RANGES OF MTS. 


d. Lena. 6. Celebes. 


I. Himalaya. 


e. Amoor. 7. Borneo. 


TI. Kuenlun. 


£. Hoang Ho. 8. Java. 


III. Karakorum. 


g. Yang-tse-Kiang. 9. Sumatra. 


IV. Peling. 


h. Cambodia. 10. Ceylon. 


V. Nanling. 


i. Brahmapootra. 11. Maldive. 


VI. Altai. 


j. Ganges. 12. Laccadive. 


VII. Yablonoi. 


k. Indus. 13. Cyprus. 

1. Amoo. BRANCHES OF 


VIII. ThianShan, 


IX. Great KhingaD. 


m. Sihou. OCEAN. 


X. Hindoo Koosh. 


n. Tigris. seas. 


XL Elbuiz. 


o. Euphrates. A. Behring. 


XII. Taurus. 


p. Jordan. B. Okhotsk. 
COUNTOR FORMS. C. Japan. 


XIII. Western Ghauts. 


XIV. Eastern Ghauts. 


peninsulas. D. Yellow. 


PEAKS. 


I. Kamtchatka E. East China. 


1. Everest. 


II. Corea. F. South China. 


2. Ararat. 


III. India China. G. Persian Gulf . 


3. Sinai. 


IV. Malay. H. Red. 


PLATEAUS 


V. Hindostan. I. Mediterranean. 


4. Thibet. 


VI. Arabia. J. Egean 


5. Desert of Gobi. 


VII. Asia Minor. K. Marmora. 


6. Decean. 


isthmus. L. Black. 


7. Iran. 


VIII. suez. gulfs or bats. 


8. Arabia. 


capes. M. Siam. 


DRAINAGE. 


IX. East. N. Bengal. 


LAKES. 


X. Lopatka. O. Arabian Sea. 


A. Caspian Sea. 


XI. Cambodia. P- Aden. 


B. Aral Sea. 


XII. Romania. straits. 


C. Balkash. 


XIII. Comorin. a Behriag. 


D. Baikal. 


island. ■ b. Malacca. 


E. Dead Sea, 


1. Saghalien. c. Ormus. 


ELVERS . 


2. Japan. d. Bab el Mandeb. 


a. Irtish. 


3. Formosa. e. Bosphorus. 


b. Obi. 


4. Philippine. f. Dardanelles. 




AFRICA. 




ISLANDS. 


RELIEF. 


D. Tanganyka. 1. Socotra. 


RANGES OF MTS. 


rivers 2. Madagascar. 


I. Abyssinian. 


a. Nile. 3. C Verde. 


II. Moon. 


b. Zambezi. 4. Canary. 


III. Snow. 


c. Orange. 5. Madeira. 


IV. Cameroon. 


d. Congo. 6. Azores. 


V. Kong. 


e. Niger. BRANCHES OF 


VI. Atlas. 


f. Senegal. OCEAN. 


PEAKS. 


COUTOUR FORMS. seas. 


1. Kenia. 


isthmus. A. Mediterranean. 


2. Kiimanjaro. 


1. Suez. B. Red. 


PLATEAU. 


capes. gulf. 


Sahara. 


II. Spartel. C. Guinea. 


DRAINAGE. 


III. Bon. CHANNEL. 


LAKES. 


IV. Guardafui. a. Mozambique. 


A. Tchad. 


V. Good Hope. straits. 


B. Albeit Nyanza. 

C. Victoria Nyanza. 


VI. Verde. b. Bab el Mandeb. 


c. Gibraltar. 


MODELS FOR LOCATING FORMS OF LAND AND WATER. 


An Island is off what coast and surrounded by what water? 


A Peninsula pro 


ects from what land and is nearly surrounded by 


what water? 




An Isthmus connects what land and separates what water? 


A Cape projects from what land into what water? 


A Sea is a branch of what ocean and nearly surrounded by what land? 


A Gulf or Bay is 


a branch of what ocean and is an inbreaking into 


what land? 




A Strait connects what water and separates what land? 





METHOD AND MATTER. 



41 



T^e fraijd Surveys 0I fel^e United States. 

Soon after the close of the Revolutionary War the thirteen states 
surrendered most of their claims to the land lying west of the Alleghany 
Mts. A large tract of territory thus came under control of the general 
government. As early as 17S6 the continental Congress made provisions 
for a uniform survey of these lands. Thomas Jefferson is thought to be 
the author of the system. From some.prominent point a true meridian is 
established. From some point on the meridian a true parallel is run. 
These, called the principal meridian and the base line, are the main lines of 
the survey. By these the land is divided up into townships,* six miles 
square. t Tiers of townships are numbered north and south from the base 
line. Ranges of townships are numbered east and west of the principal 
meridian. On account of the shape of the earth, new lines parallel to the 
base lines are run from twenty-four to thirty miles apart. These are called 
correction lines. 

N A TOWNSHIP. 













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A SECTION. 



2 

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6 

— 6 



1. E. y 2 320 A. 

2 N. W. M 160 A. 

3. E. y z Of S. W. % 80 A- 

4. N. W. &of S. W. &40 A. 

5. E. y 2 ofS. W. M Of S, W.J4 
20 A. 

6. N. W. &of s. W. 54 of S. 
W. M 10 A. 

Form fob reading.— TheN. W. M, of theS. W. M of the S. W. X, Sec. 16, 
Twp. 3 N , B. 4 W. of the 5th P. M. 

In 1786, section 16 of every township was set apart for school purposes. In 18 52, 
section 36 was added. These are called school sections. 

The first principal meridian is the west boundary of Ohio. 

The second principal meridian runs through Indiana near its center. 

The third principal meridian runs through Illinois near the center. 

The fourth pridcipal meridian runs from the mouth of Illinois K. to L. Superior. 

The fifth principal meridian commences at the mouth of the Arkansas E. and 
extends through Missouri, Iowa, and Minnesota. 

The sixth principal meridian runs through Kansas near the center. 

*These are called Congressional townships. 

tOn account of the variation of the magnetic needle, and the impossibility of 
making absolutely accurate measurements with the chain and compass, these town- 
ships are never exactly square. 



42 



GEOGRAPHY ; 



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« I «£*eg.bSE>G .«>.«.*§- 



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